ProfessorErik Wapstra

Project Total: $8,490; Understanding how the climate shapes life-history traits and demographic patterns is a central challenge in evolutionary ecology. There is increasing recognition of the importance of variance among individuals in understanding population dynamics and ecological resilience, but these can only be quantified through longitudinal studies which are rare, or absent, in most wild systems. As a result, the lifetime and intergenerational impacts of climate and environmental fluctuations on life history traits remains poorly understood. Tasmanian Snow skinks (Carinascincus spp.) are a widespread genus, spanning habitats from temperate coastal regions to alpine peaks. Long-term monitoring over 25 years of one species, C. ocellatus, from populations at the climatic extremes of their range offers a unique resource to tackle these questions. The goal of my PhD is to examine how climate has influenced reproductive traits and demographic patterns in Carinascincus over a range of spatial and temporal scales. This project will combine models of trait-environment relationships with demographic models and genetic data to examine how climate shapes life history variation from individual lifetimes to evolutionary and population-level changes. In the current funding year, I will focus on leveraging the long-term monitoring data to identify key life history traits and environmental predictors of reproductive effort in C. ocellatus. Continuing the long-term study enables the novel perspective of latent and intergenerational life history effects to be quantified as the second generation of the longest-lived individuals become captured in the monitoring data. Following this, I will look broadly to target collection of crucial Carinascincus tissue samples from new remote localities, which will be key for demographic and phylogenetic assessment of the genus. This work will provide a foundation to examine how past climate has shaped the Tasmanian snow skinks, and predict their response to our current changing climate. Funded by: Holsworth Wildlife Research Endowment - Grant-Holsworth Wildlife Research Endowment ($8,490); University of Tasmania.

Project Total: $10,000; Tasmanias high level of endemism makes its alpine ecosystems some of the most diverse in the world [1]. Exemplifying this unique biodiversity are three species of lizard: the northern snow skink (Carinascincus greeni), southern snow skink (C. microlepidotus) and Tasmanian mountain skink (C. orocryptus). All three species are restricted to Tasmanias mountains or sky islands naturally fragmented alpine environments surrounded by lowland habitats [2] largely within the Tasmania Wilderness World Heritage Area. Despite their restricted distributions, these skinks are among the most abundant vertebrates in Tasmanias alpine ecosystems, where they play important ecological roles as predators of invertebrates [3], prey for birds and facilitators of plant reproduction [4]. However, all three species are federally listed as Endangered [5], facing unprecedented threats from climate change that could drive them to extinction. This PhD-led project will integrate population genomics, species interaction studies and predictive distribution modelling to assess the vulnerability of these species. With key stakeholder engagement from Dr Michael Driessen, World Heritage Area Senior Zoologist of Tasmanias Department of Natural Resources and Environment (NRE), the results will inform evidence-based management strategies and monitoring protocols to enhance the resilience of these alpine species and their ecosystems. Funded by: Mountain Air Foundation - Grant ($10,000); University of Tasmania.

Project Total: $5,000; Tasmanias high level of endemism makes its alpine ecosystems some of the most diverse in the world [1]. Exemplifying this unique biodiversity are three species of lizard: the northern snow skink (Carinascincus greeni), southern snow skink (C. microlepidotus) and Tasmanian mountain skink (C. orocryptus). All three species are restricted to Tasmanias mountains or sky islands naturally fragmented alpine environments surrounded by lowland habitats [2] largely within the Tasmania Wilderness World Heritage Area. Despite their restricted distributions, these skinks are among the most abundant vertebrates in Tasmanias alpine ecosystems, where they play important ecological roles as predators of invertebrates [3], prey for birds and facilitators of plant reproduction [4]. However, all three species are federally listed as Endangered [5], facing unprecedented threats from climate change that could drive them to extinction. This PhD-led project will integrate species interaction studies, predictive distribution modelling and population genomics to assess the vulnerability of these species. With key stakeholder engagement from Dr Michael Driessen, World Heritage Area Senior Zoologist of Tasmanias Department of Natural Resources and Environment (NRE), the results will inform evidence-based management strategies and monitoring protocols to enhance the resilience of these alpine species and their ecosystems. Funded by: 99 Bikes Pty Ltd - Funding - Grant ($4,977); University of Tasmania.

Project Total: $3,000; Over the past 50 years, human-induced changes to ecosystems have caused alarming declines in wildlife populations, with anthropogenic climate change being a dominant driver. Alpine environments and their species are particularly vulnerable. Sky islands naturally fragmented alpine environments surrounded by warmer lowlands provide a crucial lens for understanding alpine species vulnerability to climate change. As temperatures rise, alpine species face habitat contraction, loss of genetic diversity, and competition from invading lowland species. My research focuses on snow skinks (Carinascincus), a genus of cold-adapted reptiles, with three sky island species restricted to alpine areas in Tasmania. First collected by Charles Darwin on Mt Wellington in 1836, these skinks were recently listed as Endangered under the EPBC Act 1999 due to climate change. As alpine habitats contract and lowland snow skink species move upwards, the sky island species face novel and significant challenges Critical information gaps remain regarding the alpine snow skinks response to climate change. My PhD research will address these through (1) quantification of genetic diversity and future inbreeding risk, (2) characterisation of interspecies competition between alpine and lowland species, and (3) development and application of mechanistic models to predict future distributions. This integrated approach will provide critical insight into the resilience of alpine snow skinks and contribute to the conservation of these threatened sky island endemics. Funded by: Royal Zoological Society of New South Wales - Grant ($3,000); University of Tasmania.

Project Total: $8,480; Anthropogenic climate change is one of the leading causes of biodiversity loss worldwide. Species most at risk of extinction from climate change typically have restricted distributions, limited dispersal options, low genetic variation and specialist requirements. Reptiles, especially those restricted to naturally fragmented alpine environments known as sky islands, are particularly at risk. Sky islands are high-elevation terrestrial areas surrounded by lowland habitats that act as geographical and ecological barriers to dispersal. Climate change poses a significant threat to these species due to the limited genetic connectivity between populations, sensitivity to temperature change, and specialist alpine requirements. Snow skinks (Carinascincus), a cold-climate adapted genus of reptiles in Tasmania, exemplify these challenges. While some snow skinks species have broad distributional and altitudinal ranges, others are restricted to alpine areas above 1000 metres. The southern snow skink (C. microlepidotus) is one such sky island species. It is federally listed as Endangered due to the threat of climate change as alpine habitats contract and lowland snow skink species move upwards with rising temperatures. While the biology and ecology of the alpine snow skinks are known, we lack basic information to accurately predict how they are responding to climate change, namely population genomics and interactions with lowland congeners. My PhD will address these gaps. In the first year of funding, I will undertake population surveys to conduct a genetic assessment of diversity and gene flow. Additional field surveys will investigate the extent and nature of competition with lowland species. These data will be used to build mechanistic-based models to accurately predict how the species will respond to climate change. Combined, the genetic analysis, field surveys and models will provide critical insights into the resilience of alpine snow skinks in the face of climate change, and ultimately contribute to the conservation of these unique species. Funded by: Holsworth Wildlife Research Endowment - Grant ($16,980); University of Tasmania.

Project Total: $500,000; The University of Tasmania operates the only research-based Flow Cytometry Facility in the state, which is accessed by researchers spanning neurosciences, ecology, evolutionary biology, oceanography, marine sciences, epi/genomics and immunology. Our research endeavours are cross-disciplinary and aimed at increasing and translating knowledge through the commercial application of discoveries. Investment in a new Flow sorter will provide a vital resource that underpins internationally relevant research that is important to our Tasmanian identity: our ageing population and our environment (Tasmanian Devil Facial Tumour Disease, Antarctic and climate science, Southern oceanography Funded by: Australian Research Council - Grant-Linkage Infrastructure ($500,000); University of Tasmania ($317,972).

Project Total: $8,485; Climate change poses an obvious threat to global biodiversity and even more to the species whose physiological function depend upon environmental temperature (e.g., ectotherms). Warming and heatwaves can have significant impacts on physiology of the organisms. Physiological function has been found to mediate the response of an organisms to environment and thus, variation in life history traits, characterised by growth, reproduction, senescence, and survival, among species. The primary goal of evolutionary ecology is to understand the diversity of life-history patterns. Life histories are determined by combined genetic and environmental factors, and underpinned by cellular processes, such as telomere dynamics. Telomeres are the repetitive DNA sequences that protect chromosomal ends and provide genetic stability during cellular replication. Within each cell division, telomeres shorten. Telomere shortening has been found to be associated with decline in biological function, including lifespan of individuals and thus, could lead to population decline. Telomere dynamics within individuals are significantly impacted by thermal stress such as frequent heat wave which can reduce telomeres and thus cellular function, ultimately affecting individual survival. My PhD focuses on the the Tasmanian spotted snow skink (Carinascincus ocellatus), a vulnerable reptile species displaying variation in telomere dynamics and life history traits across a broad climatic range. This research project builds upon more than two decades of ongoing study, aiming to deepen our understanding of the intricate relationship between environmental variation, life history traits, and telomere dynamics. Leveraging an established age-structured population, the study will investigate the impact of maternal age and environmental factors on offspring telomere length and associated life-history traits. Through simulated heatwave experiments, the research will explore the causal relationships between telomere length and life-history traits, shedding light on the underlying mechanisms while molecular approaches will be employed to uncover the genetic component of telomere dynamics (heritability). By integrating these diverse lines of inquiry, the project seeks to elucidate the intricate links between telomere dynamics, population dynamics, and environmental change, offering valuable insights into the broader ecological and evolutionary implications. All ethical requirements and veterinary competencies will be met. Funded by: Holsworth Wildlife Research Endowment - Grant ($16,985); University of Tasmania.

Project Total: $82,489; We propose to study the spotted snow skink Carinascincus ocellatus, a lizard endemic to Tasmania with XY sex chromosomes. Recent research on populations at the extremes of its climatic range has revealed both sex reversal and inter-population variation in sex chromosome differentiation. By integrating various methodological approaches, and comparing populations throughout the species range, we will assess the full extent of variation in sex chromosome differentiation, and test how it influences fitness in sex reversed individuals. The outcomes of this research could facilitate predictions of extinction risk in species where temperature can override genetic sex, using the nature and level of sex chromosome differentiation as an indicator for reduced fitness. Funded by: The Hermon Slade Foundation - Grant ($82,489); University of Tasmania.

Project Total: $468,000; Few things in biology provoke such a strong desire for understanding as when adult death and fatal disease can be predicted early in life. A common factor linking early life stress, disease, ageing and time of death are telomeres, the protective regions at the end of each chromosome. This project aims to explicitly link telomere dynamics in free-living ectotherm populations with experimental approaches to advance our understanding of parental and environmental effects on offspring telomeres and their effects later in life. This project will take advantage of one of the world's longest datasets on ectotherm responses to climate to provide new knowledge of how telomeres affect fitness and the role that the environment plays. Funded by: Australian Research Council - Grant-Discovery Projects ($468,000); University of Tasmania ($85,791).

Project Total: $18,355; Student: Carles Ferre Ortega We propose to study the spotted snow skink Carinascincus ocellatus, a lizard endemic to Tasmania with XY sex chromosomes. Recent research on populations at the extremes of its climatic range has revealed both sex-reversal and inter-population variation in sex chromosome differentiation. We will (i) characterise the degree of sex chromosome differentiation across the species' range, (ii) test if it can predict rates of sex reversal and sex ratio bias, and (iii) influence fitness of sex reversed individuals. The outcomes of this study will further our understanding of the interactions between genetic and environmental factors influencing sex, and the associated extinction risks induced by climate change for species with climate mediated sex reversal. All animal ethics and veterinary competencies will be completed prior to study commencing. Funded by: Holsworth Wildlife Research Endowment - Grant ($18,355); University of Tasmania.

Project Total: $250,000; Establishment of a scholarship program for the benefit of outstanding Students undertaking PhD studies in scientific research in the field of sustainable aquaculture (including salmon production) at the University. Funded by: CSIRO-Commonwealth Scientific & Industrial Research Organisation ($250,000); University of Tasmania.

Project Total: $20,945; Organisms across a wide range of taxa, including our own, live together in complex family groups. Identifying the factors responsible for the evolution of family life, therefore, represents a key challenge for evolutionary biology. Explanations for the evolution of family groups rely heavily on kin selection as the selective force that keeps related individuals together in stable aggregations. For kin selection to operate, individuals must be able to distinguish kin from non-kin so they can preferentially direct behaviour toward close relatives. The mechanisms proposed to facilitate this is kin recognition. Therefore, understanding how kin recognition first evolved is crucial for our broader understanding of the origins and evolution of family life. Despite this, our understanding of the evolution of kin recognition is still in its infancy. Recent evidence suggests an important role for live birth. Compared to egg-laying, live birth potentially provides more opportunities for interactions between mother and offspring and among siblings, both in utero and after birth. This in turn may provide opportunities for individuals to develop mechanisms that allow them to distinguish between related and unrelated individuals. Despite this, the potential role of viviparity in the emergence of kin recognition and its broader consequences for the origins and elaboration of family life remains untested. My project will address this. I will test the co-evolutionary relationship between kin recognition, sociality and viviparity. I will utilise two species which can both lay eggs and give birth to live young, and sophisticated behavioural assays, to test whether viviparity facilitates greater levels of kin recognition. I will then leverage this information in subsequent years to explore (i) the molecular mechanisms underpinning variation in kin recognition between oviparous and viviparous species and (ii) the phylogenetic interdependence of kin recognition and parity mode and its consequence for the evolution of social behaviour. Funded by: Holsworth Wildlife Research Endowment - Grant ($20,945); University of Tasmania.

Project Total: $409,121; Our project aims to determine how species transition between genetic? and temperature? sex-determination. This is significant because under climate change, the production of highly skewed sex ratios threatens the persistence of species in which sex is influenced by temperature, including several Australian reptiles. The expected outcome of our study is new knowledge of the ease by which species can transition between modes of sex-determination, which informs the risk of their exposure to potential negative consequences of climate change. This proposal relates to the ARC Science and Research priority Environmental Change?, and the Practical Research Challenge Improved Accuracy and Precision in Predicting and Measuring the Impact of Environmental Changes Caused by Climate and Local Factors?. Knowledge of the mechanism for transition to temperature sex-determination is also of commercial benefit, as many aquaculture species exhibit sexual dimorphism in important traits relating to reproduction, growth, and quality, and production of the favoured sex could be simply achieved through temperature manipulation. Funded by: Australian Research Council - Grant-Discovery Projects ($409,121); University of Tasmania.

Project Total: $6,555; A key paradox in evolutionary ecology is why female birds hatch eggs from a clutch over an extended period. The paradox arises because female birds have complete control over whether their eggs hatch synchronously or asynchronously via their incubation behaviour, yet they exhibit a behaviour that results in increased mortality of last hatched chicks. It is thought that hatching asynchrony evolved because it allows females to easily alter their brood size when conditions are poor. Despite considerable work, there is a lack of clear-cut empirical data to support this. One reason for this is that birds are physiologically constrained to produce one egg at a time. Thus, it is impossible to disentangle the effects of ecological conditions mediating adaptive hatching patterns from selection to incubate eggs as they are laid. Fortunately, hatching asynchrony is not restricted to birds. Some members of the Australian lizard group, Egernia, give birth to their offspring asynchronously. Unlike birds, Egernia lizards develop embryos synchronously but give birth to young over an extended period. This provides an excellent opportunity to uncouple ecological from adaptive explanations for asynchronous hatching/birthing patterns. My study will do just this. I will integrate ecology with behaviour, physiology and molecular ecology to understand the emergence and diversification of this novel trait at both an ultimate and proximate level. I will determine the transitions of birthing asynchrony and how they co-vary with key social and ecological factors. I will then use this as a basis to examine the hormonal, physiological and molecular mechanisms that have allowed females to acquire fine scale control over birth. Combined, results from my study will lead to a much broader understanding of the eco-evolutionary dynamics of hatching/birthing asynchrony. Funded by: Holsworth Wildlife Research Endowment - Grant ($6,555); University of Tasmania.

Project Total: $20,815; A fundamental goal in evolutionary ecology is to understand what creates the diversity of life histories among species. Telomeres, the DNA sequences at the end of chromosomes are tasked with protecting the integrity of the genome. They have recently been recognised as a strong candidate for driving patterns of growth, reproduction, aging and survival, the fundamentals of life history biology. Telomeres will shorten as cells divide and eventually lose their protective ability. The rate of this shortening generally increases when the organism is exposed to environmental stress such as predation pressure, disease, pollution and temperature extremes. Temperature is by far the strongest driving force of life histories in ectotherms, whose body temperatures are directly affected by ambient temperatures, making them particularly susceptible to climate change. Higher environmental temperatures may accelerate telomere shortening in ectotherms. These effects are not trivial, as shown by a recent study that identified temperature-induced telomere shortening as an early warning signal of population extinction in a lizard. Studying the causes of telomere shortening in ectotherms are therefore paramount when trying to determine how such species will respond to climate change. Most research so far has examined how temperature affects telomere shortening during adulthood, but recent research emphasises that early life telomere shortening is a better predictor of telomere length throughout life. Early life is characterized by high growth rates and a particular sensitivity to environmental factors, and both these traits increases rate of telomere shortening. During this project, I will examine how the environment during early life affects telomere length in the Tasmanian spotted snow skink, a key component of predicting how this species and other ectotherms may respond to a warming world. Funded by: Holsworth Wildlife Research Endowment - Grant ($20,815); University of Tasmania.

Project Total: $19,025; Understanding how species will respond to contemporary, directional climate change is fundamental to evolutionary ecology. Many aspects of reptilian life history are influenced by their thermal environment, including sex determination. Sex determination directs offspring development as either male or female. Sex determination in reptiles can be under genetic control (genetic sex determination, GSD) or environmental control (for example, temperature dependent sex determination, TSD) and genes and environment often interact. There have been frequent transitions in sex determining mode across the evolutionary history of reptiles. Species with TSD have very different responses to climate variation and change than species with GSD; climate change can adversely impact TSD species via the production of cohorts with highly skewed sex ratios. The impacts this will have on the population demographics and persistence of TSD species is unknown. This project uses snow skinks from the Niveoscincus genus to uncover the drivers of transitions in sex determining mode. This project will significantly enhance current models of reptilian responses to climate change, establishing the ecological and evolutionary drivers of transitions and inform modelling against future climates. Funded by: Holsworth Wildlife Research Endowment - Grant ($19,025); University of Tasmania.

Project Total: $44,400; Evolutionary transitions in sex determination in Tasmanian reptiles - a collaboration between UTAS and University of Canberra Funded by: Australia and Pacific Science Foundation - Grant ($44,400); University of Tasmania.

Project Total: $1,000; Sex determination directs offspring sexual development, which can be under genetic (genetic sex determination, GSD), or environmental control (e.g. temperature-dependent sex determination, TSD) or can also be achieved by interactions between genes and environment. Evolutionary transitions between GSD and TSD are common in reptiles, suggesting labile molecular mechanisms underpinning them, yet these mechanisms remain poorly understood. The viviparous snow skink Niveoscincus ocellatus exhibits population divergence in sex determination: a lowland population displaying TSD and a highland population displaying GSD. I will use this unique system to address key knowledge gaps in our understanding of transitions in sex determination systems. Funded by: Australian Society of Herpetologists - Grant ($1,000); University of Tasmania.

Project Total: $24,500; Biological ageing of organisms (senescence) is associated with a decline in function and an increase in mortality. Senescence has been widely observed in natural populations of mammals and birds; however, more research is needed to understand the causes of reproductive senescence across species. The most effective way to understand reproductive senescence (and contribute to our understanding of such processes in humans) is by combining long-term studies of wild populations with detailed experimental approaches. Our laboratory group has been studying wild populations of spotted snow skink in Tasmania for over 20 years and performing thermal manipulations in the laboratory that accelerate growth (and thus ageing processes). Reproductive senescence and other age-related declines are underpinned by processes that occur at the cellular level, through declines in telomere length. Telomeres are protective sequences of nucleotides on DNA, which prevent errors in recombination. Telomeres shorten every time a cell divides and when they no longer protect chromosomes, cellular senescence occurs. My project will combine long-term population data with state-of-the-art molecular approaches to examine links between telomere decline, age and reproductive output. This research will shed light on senescence in ectotherms, and increase our knowledge of the links between lifestyle, ageing and telomere biology. Funded by: Department of Education, Skills and Employment - Fellowship-Endeavour Research ($24,500); University of Tasmania.

Project Total: $92,250; Funded by: University of Tasmania - Grant- Research Enhancement Program; University of Tasmania ($92,250).

Project Total: $1,500; We will investigate the extent to which fathers are able to influence offspring sex ratios by determining whether sperm sex ratios vary among and within individuals and if these sperm sex ratios correlate with offspring sex ratios. We will also be investigating a hormonal mechanism by which sex allocation occurs. Because of testosterone's intimate relationship with reproductive physiology and behavior, it is a likely candidate by which sex ratios are adjusted at conception. Manipulating sex ratios can be used as a management tool in reducing or increasing populations. By identifying factors that result in a sex bias, those factors can be managed to skew sex ratios in a desirable direction. Funded by: Ecological Society of Australia Limited - Award-Student Research ($1,500); University of Tasmania.

Project Total: $17,735; The animal kingdom is characterised by diverse forms of social organisation. A key problem in evolutionary biology is understanding how sociality evolves despite costs to group living arising from conflicts between group members. This project will integrate experimental and observational methods to determine how female promiscuity and environmental variation modulate levels of within-family conflicts, thereby influencing the evolution of sociality in a social species of lizard. This is an excellent study system, as it is representative of simple family living, and so can help yield insights into the origins of family living from a solitary lifestyle Funded by: Holsworth Wildlife Research Endowment - Grant ($17,735); University of Tasmania.

Project Total: $16,250; Understanding how animals live across a wide climatic range is vital in the current period of climate uncertainty. The life history of reptiles is particularly important as their thermal environment directly influences them and little is known of the process of ageing in this group. Ageing, or senescence of wild animals is a key subject in the study of evolutionary biology today. Central to this is our growing knowledge of telomeres; caps on the end of chromosomes which slow age-related cell decline. There has been relatively little investigation into ageing in reptile taxa. Studying patterns of senescence in a reptile will make an important contribution to life history theories of ageing in the field of biogerontology. Building on an unparalleled dataset, this project uses the model system of the spotted snow skink (Niveoscincus ocellatus) to explore biological theories of aging across different environments and examine the relationships between telomeres, life history and environment. Linking variation within populations and divergence between populations is particularly important in predicting and managing climate change effects as the ability of populations and species to respond to climate change will depend on how individuals adapt to novel environmental conditions. Funded by: Holsworth Wildlife Research Endowment - Grant ($16,250); University of Tasmania.

Project Total: $15,000; Aim: to identify how the steroids testosterone and estradiol work in conjunction with temperature and genes to determine sex in reptiles. Funded by: University of Tasmania - Grant-Research Enhancement (REGS); University of Tasmania ($15,000).

Project Total: $10,000; Bringing several international keynote speakers to Hobart to present at the Species on the Move conference Funded by: Ian Potter Foundation - Grant-Conference ($10,000); University of Tasmania.